Two weeks ago (August 25) the NAFTA Tribunal for
the case of Metalclad Corp vs. Mexico ruled in favour of Metalclad,
ordering the Mexican government to pay US$16.7 million in compensation.
It is the first ruling in an investor-to-state lawsuit under NAFTA.
Metalclad vs. Mexico In October 1996,
Metalclad Corporation, a US waste-disposal company, accused the Mexican
government of violating Chapter 11 of NAFTA when the state of San Luis
Potosi refused it permission to re-open a waste disposal facility. The
State Governor ordered the site closed down after a geological audit
showed the facility would contaminate the local water supply. The
Governor then declared the site part of a 600,000 acre ecological zone.
Metalclad claimed that this constituted an act of expropriation and
sought US$90 million in compensation.
An earlier suit against the Canadian government by US-based Ethyl Corp. was settled before a ruling was made.
Ethyl Corp vs. Canada In 1997 the US
chemicals giant, Ethyl Corp, used NAFTA Chapter 11 to sue the Canadian
government for a ban imposed on MMT, a gasoline additive produced by
Ethyl which is toxic and hazardous to public health. Ethyl claimed that
the ban “expropriated” its assets in Canada and that “legislative debate
itself constituted an expropriation of its assets because public
criticism of MMT damaged the company’s reputation.” Ethyl sued the
Canadian government for US$250 million. A year later, in June 1998, the
Canadian government withdrew environmental legislation banning MMT, and
paid Ethyl Corp US$13 million to settle the case.
Three more suits are outstanding against the
Canadian government, three against the Mexican government and two
against the US government.
The case against the US by a Canadian corporation,
Mexthanex, also gained attention on the weekend, with an article in The
National Post (September 5) announcing that Methanex will seek US$970
million in compensation from the US government for environmental laws in
Califorina which are “tantamount to expropriation.”
All of these cases are based on the “rights” of
investors guaranteed in NAFTA’s Chapter 11, where a broad definition of
“expropriation” is combined with the right of investors to directly sue
governments for compensation (under ‘investor-to-state’ dispute
resolution).
An article in the The Globe & Mail (September 1)
on the Metalclad ruling (again) drew attention to the threat posed by
NAFTA Chapter 11 to government regulations protecting the environment
and public health. Similar articles will be published in the coming
weeks. This may even add to the ongoing (though low-key) debate on
whether the wording of investment rules under Chapter 11 should be
revised.
However, it is important to understand the Metalclad
ruling in its wider context. It is not only significant in terms of the
assault on environmental regulation, but in the politics of government
regulation as a whole.
Local struggle as the root of the ‘problem’
In most reports on the Metalclad vs. Mexico case the
‘problem’ was that state legislation caused Metalclad to lose the value
of its investment. The debate is then carried out in terms of the
validity of the legislation in protecting the environment and public
health.
However, we should remind ourselves that this kind
of legislation does not just appear out of thin air. Nor is it the
result of the kindness of government officials or ‘common sense.’ As
with most social and environmental regulation protecting the rights and
interests of working people, it was the result of sustained local
struggle.
“Metalclad wants to re-open and expand a toxic dump
site in Guadalcazar County in the northern part of the north-central
state of San Luis Potosí. That the company might succeed in doing so -
despite the opposition of many local officials and citizens - has kept
Guadalcazar residents on edge. Residents do not trust the federal
government to enforce environmental laws. When the Mexican company that
Metalclad bought its toxic dump from refused to obey federal orders to
close down in 1991, local residents - brandishing machetes - enforced
the order themselves.”
“When local authorities ignored the complaints of
outraged community members, citizens brandishing machetes mobilized in
September 1991, preventing tractor trailers from unloading more toxic
wastes.” Multinational Monitor (October 1995)
From this perspective it is clear that the ‘problem’
began not with the environmental regulations banning the toxic waste
disposal plant planned by Metalclad, but with a well-organised protest
by the local community. This struggle from below forced the municipal
government of Guadalcazar to impose the ban, which in turn forced the
state governor to respond.
What this means is that the NAFTA ruling in favour
of Metalclad is not just an assault on environmental regulation. It is
an assault on the original local struggle that brought this legislation
into being.
People vs. Metalclad In another case, it
was reported that “... peasants held a week-long sit-in at the end of
September 1998, at Metalclad’s construction site for the latest proposed
industrial toxic waste site in Mexico, in El Llano, Aguascalientes.”
Federal-Local Conflict
Another important political implication concerns the relationship between national and sub-national regulations.
From the very beginning the federal government of
Mexico supported Metalclad’s investment project and attempted to force
the state of San Luis Potosi to reverse its ban. Even though the NAFTA
ruling against Mexico means that the federal government must pay
compensation to Metalclad, the federal government can still treat it as a
‘victory’ against the state of San Luis Potosi and a warning to other
states.
This not only appiles to the case of Mexico. In the
US and Canada the reality is that federal governments are often willing
to lose these cases in order to discipline provincial, state or
municipal governments which have adopted progressive social and
environmental policies. Where federal governments do not have the legal
or political power to reverse such legislation, it can allow the
‘external’ intervention of NAFTA to act on its behalf.
‘Regulatory expropriation’
Over the last 10 years the concept of ‘regulatory
expropriation’ has become an important part of the neoliberal or ‘free
trade’ agenda. It is well known that this agenda involves breaking down
barriers to trade and investment, creating more freedom for corporations
to pursue profits at any social or ecological cost. These barriers
include the regulation of corporate activities by governments, such as
laws on employment, environmental protection and public health. It also
includes government regulation in the form of public sector services and
utilities, where private industry is excluded.
From the perspective of corporations, this kind of
government regulation reduces the value of their potential profits. In
other words, it prevents them from making even higher profits.
This then is tied to the concept of expropriation.
According to a strict legal definition, expropriation is understood as
the taking of private property (land) by the government. For example, if
a government builds a highway that goes through private property, then
the ‘taking’ of the land is considered an act expropriation. Usually
compensation is paid to the private land owner as a result.
However, NAFTA and other recent international treaties use an expanded definition of expropriation.
There are three important aspects of this expanded definition:
1. Private property not only refers to land and
physical assets, but the market-determined commercial value of property,
including a company’s asset value and future profit earnings.
2. Traditionally compensation was awarded only when
the whole value of property was lost. Under the new definition it
applies when any part of its commercial value is lost.
3. It is not only expropriation but acts “tantamount
to expropriation” that require compensation. This means that a wide
range of government policies, laws or administrative measures can be
treated as having a similar effect as expropriation.
In this way the neoliberal attack on government
regulation is combined with a very broad definition of expropriation to
produce the new legal-political concept of regulatory expropriation:
Any national or sub-national government regulations
(laws, treaties, administrative measures, policies) which reduce or
limit the value of the private commercial property can be considered a
form of regulatory expropriation.
Regulatory expropriation not only changes the
meaning of expropriation, adding to the list of foreign investors’
rights, but redefines the meaning of government regulation. A wide range
of government policies, administrative measures and laws which
restrict, moderate, guide, adapt or deter the activities of foreign
investors can now treated as acts of taking away the property of these
corporations.
The Takings Movement
It is important to recognise that regulatory
expropriation is not just a new concept in international trade and
investment treaties, but is a political project of a well-organized
corporate movement. This movement started in the US under the Reagan
administration and is referred to as the ‘takings movement’ or ‘takings
project.’
Under Reagan, right-wing judges and lawyers used a
series of supreme court cases to redefine the meaning of the ‘takings
clause’ in the Fifth Ammendment of the US Constitution. This clause in
the Constitution reads: “... nor shall private property be taken for
public use without just compensation.”
By applying an expanded definition of ‘private
property’ and ‘taking’, it was ruled that government regulations which
limited the commercial value of investment projects or restricted profit
earnings could be treated as acts of expropriation.
Most of these cases concerned lawsuits by property
developers against local and state governments for their laws on
ecological zoning and environmental protection. Property developers
claimed that this kind of legislation negatively affected their
commercial value (including future profits). As a result local
governments were forced to pay compensation to these companies for
“regulatory takings” (expropriation).
In some states laws were passed to protect companies
against “regulatory takings.” However, by the end of the 1980s attempts
to pass this kind of legislation were less successful. When attempts to
pass federal laws on “regulatory takings” failed, this right-wing
judicial/corporate movement shifted its focus to NAFTA.
One of the most important outcomes of the ‘takings
movement’ was that local governments were forced to do a ‘takings
assessment’ before introducing new laws. Draft laws were being watered
down or revised to avoid the possibility of expensive lawsuits in the
future. This fear of being sued for expropriation by corporations became
part of the law-making process.
NAFTA has had a similar effect at a tri-national level.
Conclusion
* Regulatory expropriation and the FTAA?
A Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) negotiating
group on investment rules was formed in 1998 and is currently drafting
the investment chapter of the FTAA. This will be ready by January 2001
at the latest, and will be finalised in Argentina in April 2001
immediately before the Summit of the Americas in Quebec City.
Despite opposition to the inclusion of NAFTA Chapter
11 or MAI-like rules in the FTAA, there are strong indications that
this is going ahead.
Although an investor-to-state complaint system might
be successfully opposed, there is a real risk that the expanded
definition of expropriation will be included.
* Regulatory expropriation clauses in bilateral investment treaties
It is important to recognise that the US ‘takings
movement’ and NAFTA model of an expanded definition of expropriation has
already been included in several new bilateral investment agreements in
the region.
The US has signed such agreements with Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and Trinidad & Tobago.
Canada has signed such agreements with Argentina,
Barbados, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, Uruguay, Venezuela and Trinidad
& Tobago.
The vague wording “tantamount to expropriation”,
“equivalent to expropriation”or “expropriation, nationalization or
measures which have a similar effect” allows a broad definition of acts
of expropriation to include government regulations.
* A strategy of exclusion
As part of the broader fight against free trade and
investment regimes, we must fight to exclude the concept of regulatory
expropriation from international agreements.
This involves reinstating the primacy of national
regulations on public health, health care, education, environment,
community development, employment protection, trade union and labour
rights, natural resources (e.g. water), genetic resources (e.g. seed),
etc, over and above trade agreements.
This means effectively excluding the above-mentioned social sectors from the overall terms of trade agreements.
With regard to investment rules on regulatory expropriation, in the short-term we must:
1. Severely restrict the defintion of expropriation.
2. Narrowly define the meaning of property so that
it cannot be interpreted to include market-determined commercial asset
value or future profit earnings.
3. Expand the definition of “public purpose”
that allows for expropriation without compensation. Therefore
regulations on the social sectors listed above should be treated as a
legitimate public purpose. This would effectively exclude these
regulations from corporate compensation claims.
|